a-small-lab Resources

Lincoln, J.R. (1989). Employee work attitudes and management practice in the U.S. and Japan: evidence from a large comparative survey.

“What does quantitative social science have to say about the contrasts in work motivation and worker productivity between Japan and the U.S.?…….This article reviews a large survey investigation of 106 factories in the U.S. and Japan and 8.302 of their employees.”

> Are Work Attitudes Different in Japan and the U.S.?

* The Japanese are Less Satisfied…….

It might be expected that job satisfaction and commitment to the company would be higher for Japanese but this was not the case. At first glance, there were no differences in job commitment. There were differences for job satisfaction but they were in the direction opposite to that which was expected (U.S. workers were more satisfied).

But, this may be a function of the high standards that Japanese workers set for themselves and the low expectations and aspirations that U.S. workers may hold. Measurement biases may also play a role here (U.S. workers are culturally inclined respond positively while Japanese are quite the opposite).

* …..But more Committed.

Controlling for possible causal reprocity between commitment and satisfaction, commitment was found to be determined by satisfaction (but not vice versa). Japanese in the sample displayed low satisfaction coupled with high commitment – what some theories would interpret as a high motivational state.

> Work Attitudes and Japanese-Style Organizations

* Security Systems Breed Work Commitment

The Japanese seniority-based system has been criticised, but it may be a strong motivator (especially in companies where skills are hard to measure and firm specific). Lifetime employment builds loyalty and identification with company goals. Further, time spent in the company leads to the accumulation of investments which need to be actualized within the firm.
The results of this survey suggest a link between age and seniority and commitment and satisfaction. Reasons for this include (1) rewards are more explicitly linked with age in Japan, and (2) generational differences among the Japanese.

* Strong Social Bonds Foster Postive Work Attitudes

Japanese respondents reported more close workplace friends and we more likely to socialize after-hours. Employees of either nationality who socialized and had coworker relationships were more likely to have more positive attitudes towards the company their jobs. Whether the higher degree of social bonding is the result of conscious management efforts or culture-specific tendencies is debatable.

> Authority and Status Hierarchies

* Are Japanese Hierarchies “Flat?”

Japanese organizations are characterized by ‘finely graded hierarchies and narrow spans of control’.  They are likely to be smaller, more specialized and less decentralized and multidivisional than U.S. firms. Even so it is possible to observe status rankings which relate only loosely to decision making and responsibility.

This ‘fine-grained’ system may have a positive effect on motivation, providing a clear career path for lifetime employees. It also may help reduce conflict that arises from status polarization.

* Do Flat Hierarchies Produce Positive Work Attitudes?

Japanese firms had taller hierachies. In both countries tall hierarchies was related to less commitment and satisfaction. Even so, work behavior/attitude was less related to status in Japan than in the U.S. (thus, the ‘blurred boundaries’ of the Japanese system may contribute to less conflict and better relations between levels).

* Do Narrow Spans of Control mean Domineering Supervisors?

Japanese supervisors act more like counsellors and friends. This helps build communication and trust without having to exert force. This is in stark contrast to the American ‘arms-length’ approach.

In this study contact with supervisors was positive for Japanese workers but negative for American workers. That is, there are less negative connotations associated with supervisor input in Japan.

> Decision-Making Structures

* Japanese Organizations are Centralized but Participatory……

Decision making in Japanese firms is characterized by consensus building. Informal networking (nemawashi) is favored over delegation of authority. This leads to high-level executives being symbolically responsible for decisions which would be handled by a lower manager in an American company – thus the appearance of centralized decision making (e.g. the ringi system).
At the shop/office level, decision-making is focused on small group activities (quality circels, production teams).

In this study, Japanese plants were more centralized by exhibited more de facto participation by lower level employees. That is, Japanese firms centralize authority but decentralize decision making. The ringi system is prevalent in Japan, quality circles are used both in the U.S. and in Japan.

* ……A Pattern Which Produces Positive Work Attitudes in Both Countries.

Companies of both nationalities that followed the Japanese pattern of decision making outlined above had more committed and satisfied employees. Formal decentralization (typical of American firms) involves delegation of power to middle managers which leave little room for participation by their subordinates. In the Japanese style, middle managers are given so little power that thy have to negotiate with their workers to get things done – this leads to the networking and consensus building typically seen in Japanese firms.

* Ringi and Quality Circles also Produce Positive Work Attitudes.

Use of the ringi system was related to commitment – this is probably indicative of a participatory climate which is a positive motivating force for employees.

Quality circles are probably different in the U.S. and Japan. Japanese quality circles are generally more uniform, require higher degrees of technical competence, and more resources from the firm. American ones are ‘generally a hodgepodge”. Nevertheless, they were related to higher satisfaction and commitment in both countries (more so in the U.S. – possibly due to their novelty).

> Company-Sponsored Employee Services

Japanse companies typically provide their employees with a wide-range of services/activities that would be provided by the community in the U.S.

* Employee Services are more Abundant in Japan……

Japanese companies provided more in-house training, formal ceremonies, sports and recreational activities, formal orientation programs, peptalks and morning exercise sessions. U.S. companies supported high-school and college courses to a considerably larger degree.

* …..But Raise Commitment and Satisfaction in Both Countries.

> Enterprise Unions

Japanese unions are organized on a per-enterprise basis and involve all workers up to second-line supervision. Some observers argue that they are not unions as understood in the West, being dependent on their company, avoiding confrontation, and working to build commitment to the firm. On the other hand, they can drive a hard bargain and have been associated with rising wage levels.

* U.S. Unions Foster Negative Work Attitudes, Japanese Unions Do Not.

Union and non-union plants were not found to be different in terms of satisfaction and commitment. Unionized U.S. plants were found to be significantly more negative. In summary, Japanese unions do not appear to be the ‘agents of management’ that some observers note, but they also do not pose the same threat to harmonious workplace relations that they do in the U.S.

> Discussion

Japanese work styles may also be effective in U.S. workplaces, but simple imitation will not lead to success.

Lincoln, J.R. (1989). Employee work attitudes and management practice in the U.S. and Japan: evidence from a large comparative survey. California Management Review, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp.89-106.