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A Paper Presented to Dr. Doug Magann
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
EDA 7225: Education Personnel, Administration, Contracts, and Negotiations
November 23, 2002
Virginia
E. Harper
Accreditation and Certification of the Marine Surveyor
Introduction
The small boat marine surveyor professional has grown into a leading management force within the boating industry. This review of the available literature pertaining to the education, certification of professional marine surveyors gives an overview of the last thirty years of changes small boat and recreational marine surveyors have faced in their attempts to take their business practices from a trade to a profession in all aspects of boating safety. The literature reveals a fledgling profession whose members are struggling to define certification, accreditation norms, delineate normative job models and forecast ethical standards of conduct for the marine surveyor professional.
The marine surveyor plays a crucial, facilitative role in the successful operation of the American maritime industry. Within the organizational constructs of the boating profession, marine surveyors, also known as boat or vessel inspectors, generally perform their primary job functions and interact with their business peers on mid and upper management levels. True ships’ inspectors, by nature of their job models, are independent of any outside influence in performing their duties and must operate autonomously as part of the professional requirements of their job description (Corley, 1999) The marine surveyor is viewed upon by both small boat and large ship owners as a knowledgeable leader in the boating profession. A marine surveyor’s report that a vessel is in compliance with federally mandated boat construction plans, required safety equipment carriage, and fire prevention standards of safe boating laws, is paramount for most businesses and private individuals who own and operate vessels.
A surveyor’s primary job function is to determine the seaworthiness of vessels for clients (Phaneuf, 1997). Primary clients include banks, insurance companies, boatyards, boat builders, yacht brokerages, boat builders, accident investigators, vessel owners, and cargo transporters. Those watercraft operators who working the recreational boating industry and shipping business are dependent upon marine surveyors to report if vessels under their management, construction supervision and investigation are seaworthy or salvageable. Surveyors are also asked to place either a fixed, or fixed range, of monetary values on vessels based on their uses and conditions.
Historical Overview of the Marine Surveyor Profession
The Beginnings of the Professional American Small Boat Marine Surveyor
Lloyd’s of London, the first shipping British syndicate, records the first vessel surveyors in its historical archives in 1760 (2000). Retired sea captains were probably the first marine surveyors and were employed to “examine ships and classify” them according to their condition. The founding mariners and underwriters of Lloyds specified rules for ship construction and maintenance so that vessels could deliver cargoes intact, and those vessels which carried goods and services to new worlds would be safe. To conform to required standards and classes of condition, vessel masters were required to have ship inspections conducted at specified intervals. The Lloyd’s practice of classifying ships by condition gave rise to the term “classification society”.
The marine surveyor’s profession is both anchored upon and intertwined with maritime commerce, so much so, that in the United States, ocean going and shipbuilding inspectors have operated as professionals since 1799. For approximately two decades after the American Revolution, the maritime industry of the new United States suffered leadership and organizational setbacks in ship management, ocean transport, and navigable waterways management as the British Crown no longer had financial or taxation interest in American safe carriage of ships at sea (Laing,1974). The Navigation Acts of King George, while still followed by most seasoned mariners in practice, no longer had to be followed by the captains and crew of the fledgling colonies. For the next 50 years, organizational framing, government leadership and self-oversight enabled experienced mariners to establish the new nation’s first marine surveying professional practices for safe operation of the new nation’s rapidly expanding ocean going fleets.
In 1857, in response to a swelling American merchant fleet, the American Lloyd’s Register of Shipping (American Maritime Documents, 2002) was formed to inspect and underwrite vessels. Surveyors who had the appropriate experience in navigation, boat construction and maritime trade practices, oversaw and surveyed new ship construction. This first American organization, patterned after the London based British Lloyd’s, inherited the name classification society. Its members outlined a classification of ships by numerical ratings. These numerical ratings were based on quality of boat construction and seaworthiness. For the next 150 years, commercial marine surveyors were required to join classification and standards writing societies as part of their job requirements. These classification societies had strict requirements for membership, credentialing and acceptance. American maritime trading and commerce surveyors who were designated members of classification societies assured shipbuilders and owners that their vessels were seaworthy and capable of carrying cargo and goods worldwide.
By World War I, the American Bureau of Shipping or ABS had fully replaced the Britain based Lloyds as the primary certification society for commercial surveyors working in the United States. ABS members oversaw and insured not only private commercial vessels and tankers, but also conducted inspections for Navy and military craft as well. The growth of the Merchant Marine, a quasi military service instituted between World War I and World War II to transport supplies to troops and US personnel overseas, gave marine surveyors were also given the task of ensuring ship’s compliance with sea safety regulations and recommendations for survival equipment carried on board. Small craft surveyors in the United States were mostly those who evaluated wooden hulls (Corley, 1999).
Up until and throughout World War II, most vessels sailing on American navigable waters were designated documented, inspected or commercial vessels. Recreational boaters were minimal. Most privately owned boats were the wooden sailing yachts, racers, and steamers owned by the very rich, or the small dories or skiffs and independently owned fishing craft of the common working man.
For the past 50 years, socioeconomic factors of greater discretionary income, the engineering of fiberglass and composites, along with a steady rise in leisure time, allowed baby-boomer Americans to buy and maintain vessels for pleasure and sport (Corley, 1999). The recreational pleasure boater, whether power or sail, has carved out what has become an 80 billion dollar a year industry comprising private, pleasure, and recreational boating (Boating Industry, 2002). The steady rise in the number of fiberglass and aluminum recreational boats being built began during the 1960’s and 1970’s and continues to this day. These now used boats are bought and sold on the secondary market, and the need for the small craft surveyor has steadily increased. Insurance companies, underwriters and, finance companies require a survey on vessels two years or older which are bought, sold, or financed.
The US Department of Labor estimates that in 2000, there were approximately 4500 related watercraft support jobs in the United States (NLB, 2002). Approximately half of these watercraft workers are independent small craft surveyors working in the United States (Corley, 1999). Since the 1970’s the majority of marine surveyors practice their profession inspecting small commercial, charter, and private recreational boats. The steady rise in popularity of recreational boating whether on lakes, rivers, or coastal waters, has also given rise to the independent private or recreational marine surveyor.
The 21st century professional marine surveyor is an independent contractor examining vessels for transfer, sale and insurance The largest part of the marine surveying business includes surveyors who direct their services to owners of small boats, yachts, and small commercial vessels. Unlike commercial surveying professionals who must join a government required classification society in order to practice their profession, recreational and small vessel surveyors are not required to become a member of any organization. These private independent surveyors come to the vessel inspection profession with a wide background of knowledge and skills gained by years of technical and practical experience in several or many areas of the marine industry, and almost always this expertise is gained prior to becoming a marine surveyor (Welch, 2002).
Increasingly, banks, insurance companies, and boat owners are now demanding professionalism and ethics of surveyors whether they are valuing used vessels as insurance adjustors, investigators, loss evaluators or expert witnesses (Phaneuf, 1997). Marine surveyors who practice their profession for the recreational and small commercial vessel owner cannot simply be taught the profession. Instead, the technical and applied experience and perspective that takes years to acquire provides the basis of professional knowledge and is the most important qualification of any good marine surveyor (Welch, 2002). The marine surveyor can only accomplish professional stature through practiced experience, continuing vocational education and earned credentials (Phaneuf, 1997).
Certification and Accreditation Issues
Frederick B. Goldsmith, a practicing maritime attorney, recommends for liability and omissions and errors purposes, that independent professional and prudent marine surveyors should “achieve certification with a recognized surveying organization.”(1997) Steadham (2001) recommends that a recreational boater choose a surveyor with “the same care you would an accountant or a doctor since your money is in the surveyor’s hands as well as your life…” Additionally he recommends surveyors who are accredited or certified by their peers. There are several qualities that a professional recreational surveyor should possess to be able to demonstrate professionalism to clients. In addition to working knowledge of all shipbuilding mediums, systems, propulsion designs and electrical systems as well as the applicable federal regulations of small passenger carrying vessels, Wallstrom asserts that a competent surveyor is interested in professional development and will be a member of a surveyor’s certifying organization (1999). Quay states that there is an accepted industry wide belief that “the first qualification of a marine surveyor is full certification by a nationally recognized surveyor association…To marine survey clients, associations provide assurance of basic qualifications” (2000).
National Organizations Engaged in Certification of Small Craft Surveyors
Certifying organizations for professional marine surveyors appeared on the recreational boating industry in the mid 1980’s. The National Association of Marine Surveyors, although founded in 1962, was for the next 30 years virtually an organization of commercial and large ship’s surveyors. The Society of Accredited Marine Surveyors (SAMS) was founded in 1986. Its founders started to recruit independent marine surveyors who desired to improve their professionalism and image by belonging to a more accessible professional society. The intent of SAMS was to promote the good image and general well being of their chosen profession and have proven technical skills necessary for membership designation (1999).
Within the same year, the US Surveyors Association (USSA), was privately founded as an outgrowth of Navtech Marine Education, a school devoted entirely to the training of marine surveyors. Navtech Marine Education had received overwhelming assistance and technical support from the US Coast Guard personnel who were concerned about safety equipment carried aboard private vessels, as well as controlling the steady rise in recreational boating accidents in the 10 year period from 1975 to 1985. The code of US Surveyors Association has been founded on the motto to “serve the boating business professional. (1987). The original founding members of both SAMS and USSA had varying backgrounds in the marine profession. By the late 1980’s, surveyors of the National Association of Marine Surveyors (NAMS, had started to shift their had started to shift their focus to professionalism and certification for their recreational boating surveyors. By 2000, all three credentialing organizations shared a common goal of ensuring private marine surveyors would have standards and be guided by codes of ethics. All three professional organizations offer a programmed course of certification.
Literature concerning the value of certification and accreditation credentialing to business administration began to appear regularly in management and education journals in the 1980’s. Galbraith and Gilley gave this definition of professional certification. “The certification process is voluntary and measures competencies of individual practitioners. The distinction between licensing a professional by a governmental agency is different than certification because of the voluntary aspect. Certification implies self-regulation without governmental interference”(1986). This definition currently best suits the professional standards writing organizations for marine surveyors. The US Department of Education defines certification as “ an occupational designation issued by an organization that provides a confirmation of qualifications in a specified occupation or occupational specialty". Certification is also the process an individual has gone through to obtain such an occupational designation. Certification implies an assurance that an individual has specific knowledge or skill level pertaining to an occupation” (The Learning Index, 2000).
Brown defines certification as” the competence in the ability to perform the duties of an occupation indicating a person’s achievement of predetermined standards” (ERIC, 1986). Certification offers a benchmark for assuring the individual possesses the qualifications required for employment in a given occupation or occupational specialty. It involves learners in an educational process for achievement of competencies required by national or state regulations, professional associations or organizations. Certification, furthermore, is a no statutory requirement, which distinguishes it from licensure.
Technical certification of skills is of increasing importance to employers in determining pay, salary steps, and promotion. Certificates function as “open transcripts” of an individual’s application of knowledge and skill over time and reflect the value of learning experiences. The Learning Index (DOE, 1999) reports a 5-15% rate of return in additional earnings per year of those with certification or degree achievement in their chosen profession (DOE,1999).
A concomitant term used for credentialing or certification, especially in the marine surveying profession, is accreditation. The functions of accreditation for marine surveyor leaders are best outlined by a consortium of professional educators and administrators at American’s Learning Exchange (2000), a consortium interested in postsecondary educational institutions of higher education. In America, institutions which offer private non-governmental training are permitted to operate with considerable independence and autonomy. The Learning Exchange refers to specialized programmatic accreditation which most nearly fits that of the marine surveying profession and states that “in today’s labor market, understanding the role played by credentials is essential in finding and keeping employment. The credentials of an education or training provider are extremely important. Employers evaluate credentials to ensure possession of necessary knowledge and abilities to perform a job” (1999). Furthermore, the top function of accreditation is defined as that which certifies an institution or program has met standards.
The US Department of Education recommends those seeking certification by organizations or institutions be able to positively answer the following questions to determine the professional value of certification in the occupation.
Do employers recognize and accept this certification?
Do they give hiring preferences to certified applicants?
Do they reward employees who become certified?
Which employers recognize and accept the certification ?
Has education or training been required?
Is work experience required?
Is passing an exam required?
Are fees charged?
Who does the organization represent?
What do peers say about the organization?
If more than one organization issues certifications in an occupation, do employers accept them equally?
The last question is problematic for marine surveyors, in that most states, including Florida, consider marine surveying a right to work profession (Phaneuf, 1997). Those in right to work professions may perform the duties of the occupation but may not use the title certified falsely. Since the federal government has not initiated nor intends to initiate a licensing program for private recreational (Phaneuf, 1997), and since there is no existing research on which surveyor organization is considered the best one, leaders in the marine surveying profession often motivated to belong to all three national organizations. The major national organizations are The Society of Accredited Marine Surveyors, The National Association of Marine Surveyors and US Surveyors Association.
Motivation for joining professional associations was examined by Richard Hurd, Professor of Labor Studies at Cornell University (2000). Hurd views professional associations as major contributors to professional development and political empowerment. The driving force behind association membership is certification requirements necessary to practice in the field are especially relevant to leadership work associations. Professor Hurd also has found a relationship between certification by association, and the increased attention to workplace concerns of job search assistance, portable benefits, standards setting for employers in treating professionals.
Associations sometimes deliver training They also often license other providers of that training, whether they are employers, private providers, universities or manufacturers of products that are used by that profession. Associations are also involved in developing exams and accreditation tests. Hurd further asserts that the recent surge in associations rather than unions on the part of employees and professionals is a desire for professional excellence.
Codes of Ethics and Certification
Excellence in profession has been defined by Hosmer (1985), as adherence to ethical codes. “Ethical codes are statements of the norms and beliefs of an organization…the beliefs in an ethical code are standards of thought; they are the way that the senior people in the organization want others to think. This is not censorship. Instead, the intent is to encourage ways of thinking and patterns of attitudes that will lead towards the wanted behavior…”(1999, p. 24). All three professional marine surveyor organizations which profess to certify marine surveyors and examine knowledge for membership requirements, included a code of ethics that expressed high standards of conduct in professional and personal business practices throughout their applications.
The Ethics Practitioners’ Association of Canada, or EPAC, profiled an ethical excellence criteria for those forming professional certifying organizations (2000). An organization should have an identifiable code of ethics that includes serving the long term well being of clients. A code of ethics will reflect the following standards:
Customer relationships that are honest and responsible
Respect confidentiality and fiduciary relationships
Avoid conflicts of interest
Ensure accuracy in reports and public statements
Acceptance of personal responsibility (integrity, candor)
Maintain responsibility to the profession practiced by participation
Institutes methods of professional development
Promotes knowledge and skill
Professional Image and Certification
Mulligan and Knutson (1999) presented the element of professional image for occupations such as small boat marine surveying. Specialized occupations that do not require institutional certification, but accept specialized skills, depend heavily on image. “Success is all about image in today’s world…personal reputations are at stake if our image is any way tarnished. Probably the most compelling professional service an organization or association certification can offer its members, is positive image within their profession and to have their members accepted at face value as professionals by the public. If an organizational members’ competencies are quantified and qualified, they are set apart from all the other practitioners in the industry who are not demonstrably certified…Even more important, they will be accepted as an expert by clients employers, peers and regulatory bodies” (p. 6).
Certification and Self-Efficacy of Marine Surveyors
The self-perceptions of marine surveyors as qualified, skilled, knowledgeable leaders within their industry appears to support certification as a way of showing competency. Preliminary results of an ongoing research questionnaire conducted by US Surveyors Association (2002) show a strong correlation between a surveyor’s perceived self efficacy and the expressed need for certification credentials (2002). The ongoing survey targets both current professional marine surveyors and those boating business leaders with high interest in the marine surveying profession.
In the survey, respondents are asked 10 questions which query a surveyor’s knowledge of vessels types, hull materials, safety equipment, age, familiarity with US Coast Guard and its role in recreational versus commercial boating, knowledge of passenger vessel regulations, self-employment motivation, ethical conduct, leadership competency, and independent study and test taking skills. The survey had a total of 50 possible points. A score of 40 or higher was used as the cutoff of the highest perceived self-efficacy marine surveyor professional ability skill level. A score of 30 indicated a surveyor who did not feel fully qualified to pursue the marine surveying occupation. 100% of the respondents who scored higher than 40 on the survey also answered yes to a follow up comment question that marine surveyor credentials should be those certifications offered by national organizations. Respondents who scored lower than 30 expressed a strong desire for one government license.
Certification is seen as critical to career progression and leadership skills.(Brown, 1999). Mulligan and Knutson state that a certified professional will be accepted as being at the top of his or her profession. Certification is an effective and efficient tool in human resources management to improve employee performance. Leech (2002) finds human resources leadership advantages for boating business professionals to belong to associations. In an overview of the advantages of belonging to marine related associations, he describes a wide range of member benefits including business development, increasing knowledge and competency as well as contributing to improved industry productivity and profitability. Membership in a professional organization that certifies marine surveyors may also assist in avoiding professional liability and damages in torts for which they will be held responsible (Goldsmith, 2002).
As the recreational boating business grew, the profession of marine surveying became accessible to all boat all self-perceived boating business professionals rather than to just a few select, government appointed inspectors. Three marine surveying organizations, the National Association of Marine Surveyors, the Society of Accredited Marine Surveyors, and US Surveyors Association, decided within one to two years of each other, to set up a system of recreational boating standards to lead marine surveyors by certification and accreditation with continuing education Authors of literature generally agree that certification is not only the trend for professionals in independent, self-directed jobs with little or no required post-graduate coursework, but offers public assurance that the marine surveyor adheres to performance standards of excellence. Whether the surveyor personally will have national licensing remains to be seen. The federal government may never take the task of “licensing” surveyors upon itself. Private organizations will continue to work with the U. S. Coast Guard to similarly qualify private surveyors. The surveyor can only accomplish professional stature through professional development and education and education is never complete.
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1. Model of TeachingDeveloping Intellect