A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one circuit to another by magnetic coupling with no moving parts. A transformer comprises two or more coupled windings, or a single tapped winding and, in most cases, a magnetic core to concentrate magnetic flux. A changing current in one winding creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the core, which induces a voltage in the other windings, and usually at a different voltage as compared to the other winding.

A simple transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the primary winding and the secondary winding. Energy is coupled between the windings by the time-varying magnetic flux that passes through (links) both primary and secondary windings. Whenever the amount of current in a coil changes (including when the current is switched on or off), a voltage is induced in the neighboring coil. The effect, called mutual inductance, is an example of electromagnetic induction.

Common Industry Standards

Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) is an independent, not-for-profit product safety testing and certification organization. The following are classifications of Underwriter Laboratories.

* Transformers, General Purpose (XPTQ.E46323)
The transformers covered by this listing are of the compound filled, exposed core or open core and coil construction, (industrial control type), rated 600 v or less. Step-up, step-down, insulated, and autotransformer types as well as air cooled reactors are included. Autotransformers are so marked. for more information.

* Transformers, General Purpose - Component (XPTQ2.E46323)
This category covers compound filled, exposed core and open core and coil transformers rated 600 v or less. Step-up, step-down, insulated and autotransformer types as well as air cooled reactors are included in this category.

* Power and General Purpose Transformers, Dry Type - Component (XQNX2.E97674)
These transformers are of the air cooled dry, ventilated or nonventilated type rated 600 v or less; 500 kVA or less single phase; and 1500 kVA or less three phase. Step-up, step-down, insulated and autotransformer types as well as air cooled reactors are included.

* Systems, Electrical Insulation - Component (OBJY2.E65096)
This category covers combinations of insulating materials arranged to form an insulation system such as that used in motors, transformers, solenoids, etc. Also included are coated core (integral ground) insulation constructions.

The CSA Mark (Canadian Standards Association) signifies that an authorized testing laboratory has evaluated a sample of the product to determine that it meets applicable national standards CSA tests and certifies products to applicable safety or performance standards including ANSI, ASME, ASTM, ASSE, CSA, NSF, UL, and others.

The CE Mark indicates compliance to the applicable requirements of a particular product as outlined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and by mutual agreement is recognized throughout the European Union. Micron has utilized the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) as a competent body in reviewing, interpreting and properly complying with the requirements to place a CE mark on its GlobalTRAN product. As a national certification body, CSA also has the proper documentation and reports on file for GlobalTRAN to utilize the CB Scheme, ensuring acceptance throughout the world.

In addition to the CE mark, a Declaration of Conformity may be required by some customs agencies. Micron will furnish copies of this Declaration upon request. Copies of the related CB Test Certificate and CSA Letter of Attestation are also available. The standard GlobalTRAN product is supplied with terminal covers which meets the requirements of IEC-529 IP20 degree of protection.

Transformers are adapted to numerous engineering applications and may be classified in many ways:

* By power level (from fraction of a volt-ampere(VA) to over a thousand MVA),
* By application (power supply, impedance matching, circuit isolation),
* By frequency range (power, audio, radio frequency(RF))
* By voltage class (a few volts to about 750 kilovolts)
* By cooling type (air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, water cooled, etc.)
* By purpose (distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.).
* By ratio of the number of turns in the coils

Step-up

The secondary has more turns than the primary.

Step-down

The secondary has fewer turns than the primary.

Isolating

Intended to transform from one voltage to the same voltage. The two coils have approximately equal numbers of turns, although often there is a slight difference in the number of turns, in order to compensate for losses (otherwise the output voltage would be a little less than, rather than the same as, the input voltage).

Variable

The primary and secondary have an adjustable number of turns which can be selected without reconnecting the transformer.

Transformers alone cannot do the following:

* Convert DC to AC or vice versa
* Change the voltage or current of DC
* Change the AC supply frequency.

However, transformers are components of the systems that perform all these functions.

Energy Losses

An ideal transformer would have no losses, and would therefore be 100% efficient. In practice, energy is dissipated due both to the resistance of the windings known as copper loss or I2 R loss, and to magnetic effects primarily attributable to the core (known as iron loss measured in watts per pound). Transformers are, in general, highly efficient. Large power transformers (over 50 MVA) may attain an efficiency as high as 99.75%. Small transformers, such as a plug-in "power brick" used to power small consumer electronics, may be less than 85% efficient.

Transformer losses arise from:

* Winding resistance

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors (I2 R loss). At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

* Eddy currents

Induced eddy currents circulate within the core, causing resistive heating. Silicon is added to the steel to help in controlling eddy currents. Adding silicon also has the advantage of stopping aging of the electrical steel that was a problem years ago.

* Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost to hysteresis within the magnetic core. The amount of hysteresis is a function of the particular core material.

* Magnetostriction

Magnetic flux in the core causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with the alternating magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores.

* Mechanical losses

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, creating a familiar humming or buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.

* Stray losses

Not all the magnetic field produced by the primary is intercepted by the secondary. A portion of the leakage flux may induce eddy currents within nearby conductive objects, such as the transformer's support structure, and be converted to heat.

* Cooling system

Large power transformers may be equipped with cooling fans, oil pumps or water-cooled heat exchangers designed to remove the heat caused by copper and iron losses. The power used to operate the cooling system is typically considered part of the losses of the transformer.

Cores

Laminate Steel cores

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies have cores made of many thin laminations of silicon steel. By concentrating the magnetic flux, more of it is usefully linked by both primary and secondary windings. Since the steel core is conductive, it, too, has currents induced in it by the changing magnetic flux. Each layer is insulated from the adjacent layer to reduce the energy lost to eddy current heating of the core. The thin laminations are used to reduce the eddy currents, and the insulation is used to keep the laminations from acting as a solid piece of steel. The thinner the laminations, the lower the eddy currents, and the lower the losses. Very thin laminations are generally used on high frequency transformers. The cost goes up when using thinner laminations mainly over the labor in stacking them. A typical laminated core is made from E-shaped and I-shaped pieces, leading to the name "EI transformer". In the EI transformer, the laminations are stacked in what is known as an interleaved fashion. Due to this interleaving a second gap in parallel (in an analogy to electronic circuits) to the gap between E and I is formed between the E-pieces. The E-pieces are pressed together to reduce the gap width to that of the insulation. The gap area is very large, so that the effective gap width is very small (in analogy to a capacitor). For this to work the flux has to gradually flow from one E to the other. That means that on one end all flux is only on every second E. That means saturation occurs at half the flux density. Using a longer E and wedging it with two small Is will increase the overlap and additionally make the grains more parallel to the flux (think of a wooden frame for a window). If an air gap is needed (which is unlikely considering the low remanence available for steel), all the E's are stacked on one side, and all the I's on the other creating a gap.

The cut core or C-core is made by winding a silicon steel strip around a rectangular form. After the required thickness is achieved, it is removed from the form and the laminations are bonded together. It is then cut in two forming two C shapes. The faces of the cuts are then ground smooth so they fit very tight with a very small gap to reduce losses. The core is then assembled by placing the two C halves together, and holding them closed by a steel strap. Usually two C-cores are used to shorten the return path for the magnetic flux resulting in a form similar to the EI. More cores would necessitate a triangular cross-section. Like toroidal cores they have the advantage, that the flux is always in the oriented parallel the grains. Due to the bending of the core some area is lost for a rectangular winging. A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remanent magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied alternating current. Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core, and false operation of transformer protection devices. Steel cores develop a larger hysteresis loss due to eddy currents as the operating frequency is increased. Ferrite, or thinner steel laminations for the core are typically used for frequencies above 1kHz. The thinner steel laminations serve to reduce the eddy currents. Some types of very thin steel laminations can operate at up to 10 kHz or higher. Ferrite is used in higher frequency applications, extending to the VHF band and beyond. Aircraft traditionally use 400 Hz power systems since the slight increase in thermal losses is more than offset by the reduction in core and winding weight. Military gear includes 400 Hz (and other frequencies) to supply power for radar or servomechanisms.

Distribution transformers can achieve low off-load losses by using cores made with low loss high permeability silicon steel and amorphous (non-crystalline) steel, so-called "metal glasses" — the high cost of the core material is offset by the lower losses incurred at light load, over the life of the transformer. In order to maintain good voltage regulation, distribution transformers are designed to have very low leakage inductance.

Certain special purpose transformers use long magnetic paths, insert air gaps, or add magnetic shunts (which bypass a portion of magnetic flux that would otherwise link the primary and secondary windings) in order to intentionally add leakage inductance. The additional leakage inductance limits the secondary winding's short circuit current to a safe, or a controlled, level. This technique is used to stabilize the output current for loads that exhibit negative resistance such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs, or safely handle loads that may become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders. Gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio transformers which have a DC component added.

Solid cores

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies) that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity. At even higher, radio-frequencies (RF), other types of cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials, called ferrites, are common. Some RF transformers also have moveable cores (sometimes called slugs) which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits. Cores are available in a wide variety of shapes, including toroids. Other shapes include so-called E-cores and C-cores.

Air cores

High-frequency transformers may also use air cores. These eliminate the loss due to hysteresis in the core material. Such transformers maintain high coupling efficiency (low stray field loss) by overlapping the primary and secondary windings.

Toroidal cores

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, from powdered iron, or ferrite, depending on operating frequency. The strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an EI core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimises the length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference. Ferrite toroid cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to a megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of switch-mode power supplies. Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated EI types of similar power level. Other advantages, compared to EI types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and more choice of shapes. This last point means that, for a given power output, either a wide, flat toroid or a tall, narrow one with the same electrical properties can be chosen, depending on the space available. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited size. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher cost of windings. As a consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above ratings of a few kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings. When fitting a toroidal transformer, it is important to avoid making an unintentional short-circuit through the core. This can happen if the steel mounting bolt in the middle of the core is allowed to touch metalwork at both ends, making a loop of conductive material which passes through the hole in the toroid. Such a loop could result in a dangerously large current flowing in the bolt.

Windings

The wire of the adjacent turns in a coil, and in the different windings, must be electrically insulated from each other. The wire used is generally magnet wire. Magnet wire is a copper wire with a coating of varnish or some other synthetic coating. Transformers for years have used Formvar wire which is a varnished type of magnet wire. The conducting material used for the winding depends upon the application. Small power and signal transformers are wound with solid copper wire, insulated usually with enamel, and sometimes additional insulation. Larger power transformers may be wound with wire, copper, or aluminum rectangular conductors. Strip conductors are used for very heavy currents. High frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz will have windings made of Litz wire to minimize the skin effect losses in the conductors. Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is insulated from the other, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. This "transposition" equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size. For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to minimise leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. This can be done by splitting up each coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of the other winding. This is known as a stacked type or interleaved winding. Windings on both the primary and secondary of power transformers may have external connections (called taps) to intermediate points on the winding to allow adjustment of the voltage ratio. Taps may be connected to an automatic, on-load tap changer type of switchgear for voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull type circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar. Tapped transformers are also used as components of amplifiers, oscillators, and for feedback linearization of amplifier circuits.

Insulation

The turns of the windings must be insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels through the entire winding. The potential difference between adjacent turns is usually small, so that enamel insulation is usually sufficient for small power transformers. Supplemental sheet or tape insulation is usually employed between winding layers in larger transformers. The transformer may also be immersed in transformer oil that provides further insulation. Although the oil is primarily used to cool the transformer, it also helps to reduce the formation of corona discharge within high voltage transformers. By cooling the windings, the insulation will not break down as easily due to heat. To ensure that the insulating capability of the transformer oil does not deteriorate, the transformer casing is completely sealed against moisture ingress. Thus the oil serves as both a cooling medium to remove heat from the core and coil, and as part of the insulation system. Certain power transformers have the windings protected by epoxy resin. By impregnating the transformer with epoxy under a vacuum, air spaces within the windings are replaced with epoxy, thereby sealing the windings and helping to prevent the possible formation of corona and absorption of dirt or water. This produces transformers suitable for damp or dirty environments, but at increased manufacturing cost.

Shielding

Where transformers are intended for minimum electrostatic coupling between primary and secondary circuits, an electrostatic shield can be placed between windings to reduce the capacitance between primary and secondary windings. The shield may be a single layer of metal foil, insulated where it overlaps to prevent it acting as a shorted turn, or a single layer winding between primary and secondary. The shield is connected to earth ground. Transformers may also be enclosed by magnetic shields, electrostatic shields, or both to prevent outside interference from affecting the operation of the transformer, or to prevent the transformer from affecting the operation of nearby devices that may be sensitive to stray fields such as CRTs.

Coolant

Small signal transformers do not generate significant amounts of heat. Power transformers rated up to a few kilowatts rely on natural convective air cooling. Specific provision must be made for cooling of high-power transformers. Transformers handling higher power, or having a high duty cycle can be fan-cooled.

The windings of high-power or high-voltage transformers are immersed in transformer oil — a highly-refined mineral oil, that is stable at high temperatures. Large transformers to be used indoors must use a non-flammable liquid. Formerly, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) was used as it was not a fire hazard in indoor power transformers and it is highly stable. Due to the stability and toxic effects of PCB byproducts, and its accumulation in the environment, it is no longer permitted in new equipment. Old transformers which still contain PCB should be examined on a weekly basis for leakage. If found to be leaking, it should be changed out, and professionally decontaminated or scrapped in an environmentally safe manner. Today, nontoxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. Other less-flammable fluids such as canola oil may be used but all fire resistant fluids have some drawbacks in performance, cost, or toxicity compared with mineral oil. The oil cools the transformer, and provides part of the electrical insulation between internal live parts. It has to be stable at high temperatures so that a small short or arc will not cause a breakdown or fire. The oil-filled tank may have radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection. Very large or high-power transformers (with capacities of millions of watts) may have cooling fans, oil pumps and even oil to water heat exchangers. Oil-filled transformers undergo prolonged drying processes, using vapor-phase heat transfer, electrical self-heating, the application of a vacuum, or combinations of these, to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical breakdown under load. Oil-filled power transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays which are safety devices that sense gas build-up inside the transformer (a side effect of an electric arc inside the windings), and thus switches off the transformer.

Terminals

Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends of the coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide electrical insulation without letting the transformer leak oil.

Enclosure

Small transformers often have no enclosure. Transformers may have a shield enclosure, as described above. Larger units may be enclosed to prevent contact with live parts, and to contain the cooling medium (oil or pressurized gas).

Additional Information:

General Transfomer FAQ - http://www.microntransformers.com/support/faq_control.php

Basic Transformer Wiring - http://www.hammondmfg.com/5CHook.htm

Transformer Sizing Guide